Artifacts
by Jonathan D. Till and Scott G. Ortman 		Crow Canyon Home

Table 74. Analysis Data for Complete and Nearly Complete Axes and Mauls, Sand Canyon Pueblo: Manufacturing and Use Data
Artifact Type PD FS Shaping Method Use Wear Interpretation Comments
Single-bitted axe 24 211 Flaked, then pecked and ground. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Little use wear apparent. Possible weapon/wood cutting. Described as PD 24, FS 17, in Mills (1987*1). Small, relatively sharp bit. Well balanced. One face slightly grooved, in addition to notches.
Single-bitted axe 28 12 Flaked, then pecked and ground. There may be two grooves, suggesting a change in use. Heavy battering on poll may suggest its use in stonework. Land clearing and stoneworking. Relatively light, and the bit edge is small in relation to tool size. Mills (1987*1) indicates no use wear, but the poll is heavily battered, which may suggest stonework. Possibly flaked after use as an axe.
Single-bitted axe 29 11 Flaked, then pecked and ground. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. A few small flakes on bit end, with evidence of polish after flakes removed. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing. Dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 34 15 Pecked and ground. Bit is ground. Heavily battered groove and poll. Bit is slightly battered. Polish in groove suggests use. Land clearing. Large tool, small bit edge. Relatively sharp bit. Significant variation in groove width at widest point.
Single-bitted axe 34 16 Flaked, then ground. Bit is ground. Groove is heavily pecked. Flake on bit edge with no polish evident in flake scar. Land clearing. Irregularly shaped cross section. Large tool, small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 34 17 Flaked, then pecked and ground. Bit is ground. Poll and groove are pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing. Small bit edge in relation to tool size. Dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 41 29 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit edge is ground. Poll and groove are pecked. Small flake on bit end with evidence of polish after the flake was removed. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Land clearing. Irregularly shaped cross section. Large tool, small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 41 55 Entire bit is ground. Groove is pecked. Poll is pecked with some polish. Abrasion is evident on bit end, but grinding/polishing have smoothed this out. Possible weapon/woodcutting. May be a bit too heavy for use as a weapon. Moderately sharp.
Single-bitted axe 50 11 Flaked, pecked, then ground. The bit is entirely ground. Groove and poll are both pecked. Little use wear is apparent. However, polish in the groove suggests some use. Possible weapon/land clearing. Small. Relatively sharp bit. Well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 50 16 Probably flaked, then pecked and ground. Entire bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Little use wear is apparent. However, polish in the groove suggests use. Land clearing. Dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 50 17 Flaked, pecked, then polished. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Large flake removed from bit. Bit edge and poll are battered. Stoneworking. Bit edge is fairly blunt from battering. Bit edge length estimated (piece missing).
Single-bitted axe 50 60 Pecked and ground. Bit is ground/polished. Several small flakes on bit end, with evidence of polish after flakes were removed. Land clearing. Dull bit. Large tool, small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 50 61 Flaked, then ground. Entire bit is ground. Groove is pecked. Poll is flaked. Small flake on bit end, with evidence of polishing after flake was removed. Possible weapon/woodcutting. Small. Relatively sharp bit. Fairly well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 106 3 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Once broken, not reshaped. Bit was shattered, and the tool used subsequently as peckingstone. Land clearing then stoneworking? Bit edge missing. Red stain on bit.
Single-bitted axe 134 19 Flaked, pecked, then ground. End of bit is well ground. Groove and poll are pecked. A few small, well-worn chips on the bit. Land clearing. Small bit, moderately sharp. Massive tool.
Single-bitted axe 134 28 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Ground across much of the tool. But groove and poll are mostly pecked. A few small, well-worn chips on the bit. Possible weapon/land clearing. Small bit, moderately sharp. Relatively small tool. Fairly well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 134 29 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Entire bit is well ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Some polish on groove, indicating use. A flake on the bit end shows no subsequent wear. Possible weapon/woodcutting. Relatively sharp bit and relatively small tool. Fairly well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 134 39 Flaked, pecked, then ground. End of bit is well ground. Groove and poll are pecked. A small, well-worn chip on the bit. Land clearing. Massive tool. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 165 24 Flaked, then pecked and ground. The bit was probably fully ground. The bit edge is entirely obliterated. Given the heavy battering on the poll, it may have been used in stonework. Polish on groove suggests use. Stoneworking/land clearing. Perhaps originally used in land clearing, but after bit broke it may have been used in stonework. Significant variation in groove width at widest point. Bit edge missing. Length measurement affected by broken condition.
Single-bitted axe 184 1 Probably flaked, then pecked and ground. The bit and poll were ground; the groove is pecked. Original bit edge was entirely obliterated. Subsequently, the broken edge was battered. Last use: stonework. Given its size, the tool's initial use was probably in land clearing. Massive tool. Bit edge missing. Length measurement affected by broken condition.
Single-bitted axe 201 13 Flaked, then pecked and ground. The bit is heavily ground, the groove and poll pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing. Dull bit. Large tool, small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 201 14 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Most of the bit is well ground. Groove and poll are pecked. A small, well-worn chip on the bit. Possible weapon/woodcutting. Relatively small with sharp bit. Not well balanced (weight heavy on bit). Condition complete with some flake damage. Groove width measurement affected by flake damage.
Single-bitted axe 201 23 Pecking and grinding. Bit heavily ground. Groove and poll pecked. An earlier flake on the bit was removed, and then the bit was ground (repair). Several flakes were removed later, perhaps in an attempt to refurbish the tool. Unknown use. Bit edge missing. Length measurement affected by broken condition.
Single-bitted axe 207 4 Pecking and grinding. Large flake removed from bit, with subsequent repair through grinding. Possible weapon/land clearing. Relatively small. Moderately sharp. Significant variation in groove width at widest point.
Single-bitted axe 213 2 Grinding. A little pecking is evident on the poll and groove. Probably made from a cobble. Large flake removed from one side of the bit. A small portion of the original bit is present. Land clearing. Dull bit. Bit edge missing. Length measurement affected by broken condition.
Single-bitted axe 215 32 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is almost entirely ground. Groove and poll are well pecked. One flake scar on bit edge. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing/possible weapon. Irregular cross section. Fairly sharp.
Single-bitted axe 215 51 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Some grinding on bit end. Pecking in groove and poll. Edge is entirely obliterated. However, some wear on the edge indicates subsequent use. Land clearing. Bit edge missing. Length measurement and bit-to-groove distance affected by broken condition.
Single-bitted axe 246 14 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground; heavy recent pecking in groove.   Land clearing. Dull bit. Massive tool.
Single-bitted axe 269 25 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is entirely ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing/possible weapon. Moderately sharp. Relatively small. Bit edge is fairly small.
Single-bitted axe 269 26 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Some polish in groove indicates use. Woodcutting/possible weapon. Sharp bit. Relatively small tool. Fairly well balanced. Poll end damaged.
Single-bitted axe 269 27 Flaked, pecked, then ground. End of bit is ground. One old flake scar on bit edge. Poll end looks freshly battered. Possible land clearing and stoneworking. Bit is beveled. Moderately sharp.
Single-bitted axe 269 28 Pecked, then ground. Grinding is apparent on much of tool. Fresh pecking on one side of bit, near edge. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Some old flake scars on bit edge. Land clearing. Dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 269 29 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground; poll shows considerable polish. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Poll, too, shows considerable polish. Land clearing.  
Single-bitted axe 269 30 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end ground; groove and poll pecked. Polish in groove and on poll. Land clearing. Small. Very dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 269 31 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Ground on bit. Heavily pecked groove. Flaked and pecked poll. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Land clearing. Dull bit. Massive tool.
Single-bitted axe 269 32 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Groove and poll are heavily pecked; bit is well ground. Minimal wear on edge of bit. Slight polish on groove is indicative of use. Land clearing. Dull bit. Relatively small tool.
Single-bitted axe 269 45 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Ground on bit edge, but otherwise well pecked all over tool. No wear evident. Bit appears to be freshly ground. Probable land clearing. Sharp. Significant variation in groove width variation at widest point.
Single-bitted axe 269 46 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is well ground. Groove and bit are pecked. A little old wear suggested on bit edge. Polish in groove indicates use. Land clearing. Massive tool. Dull bit. Well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 289 1 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Possible reworking on bit edge. Poll and groove are pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Possible weapon. Relatively small tool. Severe flake damage. Mills's (1987*1) bit edge length measurement used.
Single-bitted axe 289 2 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is heavily ground. Groove is pecked; poll is heavily flaked then pecked. At least one small flake on bit edge with subsequent polish. Land clearing. Small bit edge. Massive tool. Irregular cross section.
Single-bitted axe 289 3 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Two small flake scars on bit edge without subsequent polish. Land clearing. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 344 14 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Significantly fractured with little subsequent reshaping. The tool has been badly damaged along bit and poll. Dull polish on bit edge. Possible land clearing. Dull bit. Bit edge length is estimate, edge damage. Heavy damage on one side of groove. Groove width measurement affected by flake damage.
Single-bitted axe 387 22 Pecked, then ground. Well shaped. Large, rounded poll. Polish in groove and on poll indicates use. Possible land clearing. Relatively dull bit. Fairly massive tool.
Single-bitted axe 387 23 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground; groove and poll are pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Possible land clearing. Relatively dull bit. Fairly massive tool. Significant width variation at widest point of groove.
Single-bitted axe 388 72 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Poll and groove are pecked. No reshaping after bit broke. Bit edge is entirely broken off. Polish in groove indicates use. Indeterminate. Bit edge missing. Length measurement and bit-to-groove distance affected by missing edge.
Single-bitted axe 388 238 Flaked, then pecked; minimal grinding on bit end. Battered bit end suggests stoneworking. Possible land clearing and stoneworking. Irregular cross section. Very crude, expediently made tool. Well balanced. Bit edge length affected by damage on bit edge. Slightly burned.
Single-bitted axe 410 8 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Pecking, particularly around groove, occurred after grinding. Some small flakes removed from bit edge, with no subsequent wear. Indeterminate. Small, relatively dull. Well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 530 61 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is ground. Remainder of tool is pecked. Slight polish in groove indicates use. A few small flake scars on bit edge. Indeterminate. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 530 67 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is well ground. The tool is not as intensively shaped as other axes.   Possible weapon. Irregular cross section. Sharp bit. Relatively small. Slight pecking on lateral edge.
Single-bitted axe 550 1 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is well ground. Groove and poll are heavily pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. A few small flake scars on bit edge. Indeterminate. Highly burned with incipient spalling/cracking. Moderately sharp. Significant variation in maximum groove width.
Single-bitted axe 584 23 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is well ground. Minimal effort went into the poll's shape. A few small, worn chips in the bit edge. Possible weapon. Sharp bit. Irregular cross section. Small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 587 22 Flaked. Minimal pecking in groove. No grinding apparent. Battered, well-worn bit and poll ends. Indeterminate (not tree cutting). Expedient tool with little or no attempt at formalization.
Single-bitted axe 628 25 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Both groove and poll are well pecked. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Several small flake scars on bit edge. One flake scar is polished. Possible weapon. Relatively small. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 628 31 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is both ground and flaked. Groove is pecked. Several flake scars on bit edge with some polish. Possible land clearing. Irregular cross section.
Single-bitted axe 628 34 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is ground. Pecking is evident on poll, groove, and part of the bit near the groove. Flake scar on bit edge. The scar has some polish on it. Indeterminate (not tree cutting). Relatively small bit edge. Dull bit. The artifact has been broken then glued back together. The breakage is unusual and resulted in numerous fragments in the area of the groove perpendicular to the main axis of the tool. This break had to occur prior to a burning event.
Single-bitted axe 698 1 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is ground. Pecking is on groove and poll of tool. Old, highly polished flake scars on bit end. Possible land clearing. Dull bit. Relatively small bit edge.
Single-bitted axe 698 3 Pecked and ground. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Some polish on groove, indicating use. Possible land clearing. Relatively small bit edge. Bit is moderately sharp.
Single-bitted axe 698 4 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Some polish on groove, indicating use. Indeterminate. Moderately sharp bit. Relatively small tool.
Single-bitted axe 799 1 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit appears to have been reworked by flaking. Some grinding on bit. Groove and poll are pecked. The bit fractured and a large flake was removed from one side. Subsequent flaking retouched and repaired the bit edge. Some polish in groove. Heavily battered poll. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon. Dull, battered bit. Relatively small tool. Fairly well balanced.
Single-bitted axe 860 43 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Grinding/polishing all over tool except groove. A few small flake scars on bit edge with high polish. Polish in groove indicates use. Possible weapon. Relatively small tool. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 860 60 Pecking then grinding. Some grinding on bit end. Groove and poll are pecked. One small flake scar on bit edge with high polish. Possible land clearing. Relatively small bit edge. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 1206 31 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Polish in groove indicates use. Battered bit edge suggests use as peckingstone. Stoneworking. Possible weapon. Relatively small, well-balanced tool. Bit edge is heavily chipped; bit edge length is estimate.
Single-bitted axe 1397 8 Flaked, then pecked around haft. This may be an axe preform. Broken at haft/groove, perhaps during manufacture. Possible preform. Irregular cross section. Tool broke at haft. One bit margin is bifacially flaked. Bit edge length not measurable.
Single-bitted axe 1397 9 Flaked then ground. A few small flake scars on bit edge with some polish. Polish in groove. Possible weapon. Small tool. Moderately sharp bit.
Single-bitted axe 1428 18 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit end is ground. Groove and poll are pecked. Some polish in groove indicates use. A few small polished flake scars on bit edge. Indeterminate. Heavily burned. The tool fractured across groove and bit face, perhaps due to fire.
Single-bitted axe 1440 5 Pecked then ground. Original bit was ground. Groove is pecked. Poll was pecked then ground. The tool's bit fractured and the bit edge was retouched to refurbish the tool. Subsequent wear on bit edge may be consistent with land-clearing activities, considering the polish present. Possible land clearing. Irregular cross section.
Single-bitted axe 1448 11 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Entire bit is ground. Groove is pecked. Poll is both pecked and ground. Small flakes on the bit edge have polish. Possible land clearing. Dull bit.
Single-bitted axe 1478 14 Flaked, pecked, then ground. Bit is ground. Groove is pecked. Poll is flaked and pecked. Groove has polish, indicating use. A large flake scar is present on the bit edge. Possible weapon. Dull bit. Small tool.
Single-bitted axe 1600 4 Pecked then ground. The poll is pecked with a bit of grinding. The bit edge fractured and may have been subsequently retouched. Wear has dulled the more recent bit. There is also some wear on the flake scars from the fracture, suggesting the tool's use in sediments (i.e. land clearing). Possible land clearing.  
Double-bitted axe 215 50 Flaked, ground, and pecked. The entire artifact, except the haft's grooves, is ground. The grooves are pecked. The bits of the artifact are well battered. Possible weapon. Possible land clearing. Bit edges are dull, and actually not ground. Second bit edge length 4.3 cm. Second bit-to-groove distance 5.1 cm.
Axe/maul 1159 43 Flaked, ground, and pecked. Groove is pecked. The portion that had been the bit end of the tool is worn, or abraded by wear, apparently the result of reuse as a maul. Possible weapon. The tool appears to have been an axe that was refurbished into a maul. Small tool.
Axe/maul 1507 25 Flaked, pecked, and ground. Groove is pecked. The probable bit end of the tool shows remnant grinding. Groove is polished, indicating use. The tool was probably originally an axe, the bit end of which has fractured from the tool. Indeterminate. The tool may have been refurbished to continue its use, perhaps as a land-clearing tool or as a maul. No use wear is apparent, however.
Maul 0 2 Cobble with possible ground surfaces. The haft, or groove, is pecked. Both ends are battered. Stoneworking. Possible weapon. Relatively small.
Maul 24 8 Appears to be a one-hand mano, with two ground faces, that has a groove added to it. The pecked groove goes all around the shorter midsection of the artifact. Both ends are battered. Stoneworking.  
Maul 79 11 Small, ovoid stone with one possible ground facet. Groove is pecked into shorter midsection of artifact. Both ends are battered. Stoneworking. Possible weapon. Relatively small.
Maul 184 62 Flaked, ground, then pecked. Flaking roughed the shape, then some grinding touched the artifact up. Pecking made the groove. The entire lateral margin, except the groove, is battered. Possible stoneworking.  
Maul 219 5 Flaked. Then pecking finished the groove/haft. Both ends are heavily battered. Possible stoneworking.  
Maul 219 9 The item may have originally been an axe with a ground bit. This bit was then reduced by flaking. The groove is pecked. There is a high polish on the knobby end of the tool that had probably been the bit. Possible weapon. Vegetal or hide processing? Irregular cross section. Small item.
Maul 230 1 Probably the medial (hafted) portion of a broken axe with only the groove remaining. Battering on both ends. Possible stoneworking. Irregular cross section.
Maul 306 1 Ground and pecked. Groove is pecked. Grinding occurs on both facets. The tool is battered on both ends. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon. Small artifact.
Maul 306 2 Flaked, pecked, and ground. A groove is not immediately apparent, though a possible haft is suggested by patterned pecking. Battering is evident on one end of the artifact. The other end may actually be ground. Stoneworking or weapon? Vegetal processing? Small artifact.
Maul 357 10 Flaked, then heavily pecked. A hafting point is only barely suggested by slight indentations. Both ends of the tool are heavily battered. Possible stoneworking. Irregular cross section.
Maul 472 4 Flaked, ground, and pecked. The groove notches are pecked. Battering is particularly evident on one end of tool. The other end has polish. Stoneworking, vegetal processing, or weapon. Relatively small. Well-balanced.
Maul 528 122 Flaked and pecked. Groove notches are slightly pecked. Battering is evident on both ends of the tool. Possible stoneworking or weapon. Relatively small. Well-balanced.
Maul 534 2 Flaked and pecked. Groove is flaked, with little pecking. Heavy battering on both ends of tool. Possible stoneworking. Irregular cross section.
Maul 661 17 Flaked and pecked. A possible haft location is only faintly suggested in midsection. Heavy battering on one end of tool. Possible stoneworking. Irregular cross section. Teardrop-shaped artifact.
Maul 797 36 Flaked and pecked. Groove is pecked. One end shows heavy battering. The other end shows some battering and polish. Possible stoneworking, vegetal processing, or weapon. Located below and between HROs 20 and 21.
Maul 815 3 Flaked and pecked. Groove is pecked. Some battering, particularly on one end of tool. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon. Small artifact.
Maul 1023 7 Flaked, pecked, and ground. The artifact may have originally been an axe with a partially ground bit. Groove is pecked. Heavy battering on either end of tool. Some polish is evident in groove. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon.  
Maul 1082 8 Flaked and pecked. Groove is pecked. Battering on either end of tool. Some polish is evident in groove. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon. Small artifact.
Maul 1190 43 Flaked, pecked, and ground. The artifact may have actually been an axe with a partially ground bit. Polish in groove is indicative of use. Some battering and polish is apparent on one end of tool. Vegetal processing? Weapon? Small artifact.
Maul 1669 3 Pecked and ground. A groove in the artifact is heavily polished. Polish in groove indicates lots of use. A positive crease (or ridge) in the middle of the haft may indicate a double wrap. Heavily battered on either end. Possible stoneworking. Possible weapon. Small artifact.
PD = Provenience Designation; FS = Field Specimen; HRO = Human Remains Occurrence.

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